Cornell University to update twenty-year old purchasing system and to shop online only with preferred vendors (Kelley, 2009).
Cornell University President David Skorton gives the directive to modernize the purchasing system software, do business only with preferred vendors, and to assess spending to identify new areas of cost-containment with hopes of a potential savings of $40 million a year (Kelley, 2009).
My Opinion
This new way of thinking for purchases and a new online system for making those purchases may require some "buy-in" from the university community, but will make a "big payoff" through future savings. By shopping around only with preferred vendors, there is a built-in method of cost-containment because of previously negotiated pricing. Savings realized through renovating an outdated mode of purchasing materials could help to absorb budget cuts that would have otherwise been absorbed by university personnel staffing and salaries.
Reference
Kelley, S. (2009). Skorton announces directive to reform purchasing system; could yield savings of up to $40 million. Cornell University Cornell Chronicle Online. As retrieved on November 6, 2009, from: http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Oct09/Procurement.html
Friday, November 6, 2009
Cost-Saving Miseries Love Consortiums
Colgate University in New York has recently partnered with five other New York area to form a consortium.
According to O'Keefe (2009), the goals of the consortium are:
• Harnessing technology to allow for greater collaboration in all areas, with emphasis on shared human resources, high end computing collaboration and advanced computer infrastructure.
• Acquiring of goods and services, including benchmarking, joint purchasing and risk management.
• Promoting sustainable institutional environments, including recycling operations and alternative energy supplies.
• Maximizing student engagement, including wellness programming, alcohol and substance abuse intervention strategies, responses to differential learning styles, and collaboration among teaching and learning centers.
• Shaping workforces, including faculty development, staff development, and preparation of future academic leaders.
• Fostering intercultural literacy, including strategies for ensuring students are prepared to live in a global and diverse world.
By joining the other five universities, Colgate University hopes to realize cost savings by being a member of a larger organization with more leverage and buying power.
My Opinion
A consortium may hold the answer of cost-savings, but leave several questions behind: Is decision of the consortium binding for all members, if so, how is it being monitored? How long should the consortium be formed and in operation? What legal, political, and monetary issues arise from consortium membership? How does the individual member institution maintain its identity while developing a consortium identity?
Reference
O'Keefe, T. (2009). Colgate, five colleges to explore cost-saving steps. Colgate University: News and Events Blog. As retrieved on Novmber 6, 2009, from: http://blogs.colgate.edu/2009/07/colgate-five-colleges-to-explo.html
According to O'Keefe (2009), the goals of the consortium are:
• Harnessing technology to allow for greater collaboration in all areas, with emphasis on shared human resources, high end computing collaboration and advanced computer infrastructure.
• Acquiring of goods and services, including benchmarking, joint purchasing and risk management.
• Promoting sustainable institutional environments, including recycling operations and alternative energy supplies.
• Maximizing student engagement, including wellness programming, alcohol and substance abuse intervention strategies, responses to differential learning styles, and collaboration among teaching and learning centers.
• Shaping workforces, including faculty development, staff development, and preparation of future academic leaders.
• Fostering intercultural literacy, including strategies for ensuring students are prepared to live in a global and diverse world.
By joining the other five universities, Colgate University hopes to realize cost savings by being a member of a larger organization with more leverage and buying power.
My Opinion
A consortium may hold the answer of cost-savings, but leave several questions behind: Is decision of the consortium binding for all members, if so, how is it being monitored? How long should the consortium be formed and in operation? What legal, political, and monetary issues arise from consortium membership? How does the individual member institution maintain its identity while developing a consortium identity?
Reference
O'Keefe, T. (2009). Colgate, five colleges to explore cost-saving steps. Colgate University: News and Events Blog. As retrieved on Novmber 6, 2009, from: http://blogs.colgate.edu/2009/07/colgate-five-colleges-to-explo.html
Thursday, November 5, 2009
Departments and the "Academic Ratchet"
Economic troubles have hit higher education hard several times over the last few decades. This has put the higher education system on the defensive each time. Each time, colleges explain why they are “neither privileged havens of waste nor institutions so out of touch with reality that they are on the verge of losing their relevance” (Massy and Zemsky, p.1). Public funding has generally declined each year, resulting in fewer services, yet students must pay more in tuition. The result of this is that “students are being asked to pay more for less” (p. 2).
The net effect of this is that undergraduate education has “destructured”, which means that “the undergraduate curriculum over the last two decades [has been reorganized so that it has] fewer required courses, less emphasis on taking courses in an ordered sequence, and greater reliance on students to develop their own sense of how the various bits and pieces of knowledge they acquire in the classroom fit together into a coherent picture” (p. 3). Massy and Zemsky believe that destructuring “derives in part from the faculty’s own pursuit of specialized knowledge” (p. 3). The authors believe that this destructuring phenomenon has created economic consequences, such as increasing the number of courses offered by a department and the number of faculty hired.
The second effect of the economic troubles is that of the “academic ratchet”. This occurs when “faculty members increase their discretionary time (tie for pursuing professional and personal goals) largely by loosening their institutional ties and responsibilities” (p. 3). In other words, as more professors spend time on their own projects, they spend less time teaching courses. The problem with this that this does not always result in better teaching, and even if it did it wouldn’t increase someone’s salary or other compensation. There are too many other things that are high stakes, such as “research, scholarship, professional service, and similar activities, that a professor must do in order to remain employed—yet these activities aren’t as valued by those who pay for education (students, parents, government). The end result is that the professor spends more time on the high stakes activities, less time on actual teaching, thus resulting in students paying more for less all over again. This results in what the authors call “output creep”.
Source:
Massy, William F. & Zemsky, Robert. (1994). Discretionary Time: Departments and the “Academic Ratchet. The Journal of Higher Education (Vol. 65, No. 1), p1-22.
The net effect of this is that undergraduate education has “destructured”, which means that “the undergraduate curriculum over the last two decades [has been reorganized so that it has] fewer required courses, less emphasis on taking courses in an ordered sequence, and greater reliance on students to develop their own sense of how the various bits and pieces of knowledge they acquire in the classroom fit together into a coherent picture” (p. 3). Massy and Zemsky believe that destructuring “derives in part from the faculty’s own pursuit of specialized knowledge” (p. 3). The authors believe that this destructuring phenomenon has created economic consequences, such as increasing the number of courses offered by a department and the number of faculty hired.
The second effect of the economic troubles is that of the “academic ratchet”. This occurs when “faculty members increase their discretionary time (tie for pursuing professional and personal goals) largely by loosening their institutional ties and responsibilities” (p. 3). In other words, as more professors spend time on their own projects, they spend less time teaching courses. The problem with this that this does not always result in better teaching, and even if it did it wouldn’t increase someone’s salary or other compensation. There are too many other things that are high stakes, such as “research, scholarship, professional service, and similar activities, that a professor must do in order to remain employed—yet these activities aren’t as valued by those who pay for education (students, parents, government). The end result is that the professor spends more time on the high stakes activities, less time on actual teaching, thus resulting in students paying more for less all over again. This results in what the authors call “output creep”.
Source:
Massy, William F. & Zemsky, Robert. (1994). Discretionary Time: Departments and the “Academic Ratchet. The Journal of Higher Education (Vol. 65, No. 1), p1-22.
Tuesday, November 3, 2009
Cutting Costs to Raise Salaries
The University of Texas system has dealt with the budget crisis with a new approach. Instead of attempting to weather the current downturn with budget cutting, minimized layoffs, and no salary increases for any faculty the current UT President, William Powers Jr., said “tough choices are essential if the university is to make progress in its quest to compete more effectively for talent with other major U.S. research institutions”.
According an article in the Austin American-Statesman newspaper scores of jobs at the flagship campus in Austin are likely to be cut in the coming months as UT retools its budget in an effort to free up money for retaining and attracting top faculty members. And in the next few years, the job losses could run into the hundreds. Besides lecturers, some of whom are part time, the cuts are likely to affect some graduate students who draw salaries for serving as teaching assistants or assistant instructors. In addition, some university staff members already have been dismissed, and more stand to lose their jobs.
The decision was made to cut costs and use the savings to increase salaries of those faculty that are highly regarded and whose pay hasn't kept pace with the market and select female faculty members whose salaries lag behind those of men. According the American-Statesman article raises totaling $6 million will be restricted to tenured and tenure-track faculty members, who make up about two-thirds of UT's faculty. As a group, these professors are the highest-paid faculty members at the university, with full professors averaging $132,253 a year, associates $85,328 and assistants $81,800. Twenty-five to 35 percent of the tenured and tenure-track professors are expected to get raises.
Some of the cuts and proposals being made:
Dean Gregory Fenves stated that The Cockrell School of Engineering has dismissed 13 staff members, mostly in computer-related support roles. The layoffs, coupled with the elimination of 12 vacant positions, freed up $1.6 million - 8 percent of the school's $20 million operating budget - for targeted raises, new faculty members and research support.
The McCombs School of Business plans to lay off 20 people, or 5 percent of its staff, to underwrite faculty raises. The school's budget of about $90 million is projected to remain flat through 2013. But overall expenses tend to rise 2 to 3 percent annually, so additional savings will be sought by combining some billing and other back-office operations, according to Dean Tom Gilligan.
In the College of Communication lecturers and graduate assistants in will be losing their jobs. The number of lost jobs is still being determined by the departments in the college. Faculty in the department were required to submit updated resumes to be considered for salary increases.
The College of Liberal Arts, UT's biggest unit, could eliminate 78 to 300 employees, depending on whether the cuts fall mainly on higher-paid lecturers or lower-paid graduate assistants.
Kevin Hegarty, vice president and chief financial officer, stated for American-Statesman article “While you can always cut some fat, I don't believe there's that much fat to be had. You really have to rethink your core business model, and that's what we're doing."
Dean Gregory Fenves stated that The Cockrell School of Engineering has dismissed 13 staff members, mostly in computer-related support roles. The layoffs, coupled with the elimination of 12 vacant positions, freed up $1.6 million - 8 percent of the school's $20 million operating budget - for targeted raises, new faculty members and research support.
The McCombs School of Business plans to lay off 20 people, or 5 percent of its staff, to underwrite faculty raises. The school's budget of about $90 million is projected to remain flat through 2013. But overall expenses tend to rise 2 to 3 percent annually, so additional savings will be sought by combining some billing and other back-office operations, according to Dean Tom Gilligan.
In the College of Communication lecturers and graduate assistants in will be losing their jobs. The number of lost jobs is still being determined by the departments in the college. Faculty in the department were required to submit updated resumes to be considered for salary increases.
The College of Liberal Arts, UT's biggest unit, could eliminate 78 to 300 employees, depending on whether the cuts fall mainly on higher-paid lecturers or lower-paid graduate assistants.
Kevin Hegarty, vice president and chief financial officer, stated for American-Statesman article “While you can always cut some fat, I don't believe there's that much fat to be had. You really have to rethink your core business model, and that's what we're doing."
Reference
Layoffs loom amid UT belt-tightening. (Oct. 4, 2009). Austin American-Statesman. Retrieved October 30, 2009 from
http://www.statesman.com/search/content/news/stories/local/2009/10/04/1004utcuts.html
Sunday, November 1, 2009
Unit 4: Cost Problem: The Revenue-to-Cost Spiral
The revenue-to-cost spiral results in cost disease within higher education. In his article, Martin (2009) maintained that in private industry revenue-to-cost spiral occurs when "higher revenues induce higher costs and those costs are used to justify future calls for more revenue" (p. 3). Unfortunately, costs in higher education are generally capped only by the total revenues. In other words, unlike private industry, a college or university cannot spend more than it takes in - unless of course the administration wishes to appear incompetent. To make matters worse, there are generally no incentives for colleges and universities to minimize costs. Martin observed that higher education is similar to private industry in that "as revenue increases, faculty, administrators, and board members extract more surplus from the cash flows in the form of higher costs and then use those costs as justification for more revenue" (p. 12). The cycle begins again next year thus developing a never ending spiral between revenues and costs. This creates enormous pressure thus forcing colleges and universities to seek out more revenues rather than cut costs. Regrettably it is often the students who must bear the brunt of the costs through higher tuition. It is certainly easy to see how the revenue-to-cost spiral is a problem that contributes to the cost disease in higher education.
Reference
Martin, R. E. (2009). The revenue-to-cost spiral in higher education. Raleigh, NC: The John William Pope Center for Higher Education Policy.
Tecnhically speaking: A lining of silver savings in every cloud
In an October 22, 2009, commentary to the Campus Technology website, Ohio takes to the clouds, Ohio Board of Regents Chancellor Eric D. Fingerhunt outlines how the University System of Ohio has transitioned to cloud-based computing technology for its e-mail and office productivity by partnering with Microsoft.
Cloud computing (2009) is defined by Mell and Grance of the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology Agency, Computer Security Division, Computer Security Resource Center as:
a model for enabling convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction.
Previously programs handling e-mail such as Microsoft Outlook and office systems package, Microsoft Office, had to be installed and supported by university computing technology staff. Now with the new partnership, those programs are hosted by Microsoft.
Microsoft will handle maintain, supporting, and updating the programs. Rather than installing those programs computer by computer, the University System of Ohio faculty/staff/student would connect to the program over the Internet.
The intended purpose of the transition to cloud-based computing is to realize cost savings from outsourcing, or as one commenter stated, "cloud-sourcing", the e-mail and office-systems programs.
My Opinion
It would be an interesting prospect to follow the University System of Ohio actual savings. In the short term, I could imagine the decreased expense of providing such services, but what happens later? In the future, would the rate to provide such service by "out-sourcing" eventually cost more than providing the service "in-house"?
References
Fingerhut, E. (2009). Ohio takes to the clouds. Campus Technology. Retrieved on November 1, 2009, from:
http://campustechnology.com/articles/2009/10/22/ohio-takes-to-the-clouds.aspx
Mell, P.; Grance, T. (2009). The NIST definition of cloud computing. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology Agency, Computer Security Division, Computer Security Resource Center. Retrieved on November 1, 2009, from:
http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/SNS/cloud-computing/cloud-def-v15.doc
Cloud computing (2009) is defined by Mell and Grance of the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology Agency, Computer Security Division, Computer Security Resource Center as:
a model for enabling convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction.
Previously programs handling e-mail such as Microsoft Outlook and office systems package, Microsoft Office, had to be installed and supported by university computing technology staff. Now with the new partnership, those programs are hosted by Microsoft.
Microsoft will handle maintain, supporting, and updating the programs. Rather than installing those programs computer by computer, the University System of Ohio faculty/staff/student would connect to the program over the Internet.
The intended purpose of the transition to cloud-based computing is to realize cost savings from outsourcing, or as one commenter stated, "cloud-sourcing", the e-mail and office-systems programs.
My Opinion
It would be an interesting prospect to follow the University System of Ohio actual savings. In the short term, I could imagine the decreased expense of providing such services, but what happens later? In the future, would the rate to provide such service by "out-sourcing" eventually cost more than providing the service "in-house"?
References
Fingerhut, E. (2009). Ohio takes to the clouds. Campus Technology. Retrieved on November 1, 2009, from:
http://campustechnology.com/articles/2009/10/22/ohio-takes-to-the-clouds.aspx
Mell, P.; Grance, T. (2009). The NIST definition of cloud computing. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology Agency, Computer Security Division, Computer Security Resource Center. Retrieved on November 1, 2009, from:
http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/SNS/cloud-computing/cloud-def-v15.doc
Unit 4: Possible Solution: Private Colleges Containing Costs Through Student Employment And Other Initiatives
Public colleges and universities are not the only institutions seeking ways in which to contain costs. The National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities (2009) noted that private colleges and universities are implementing and even expanding practices that are designed to control operating costs, enhance efficiency, and give students a quality education at the lowest price possible. To accomplish such a task, several private institutions are controlling the high cost of having permanent full-time employees by replacing them with students while other schools are using more creative methods.
Rhodes College
Some private schools are using students as employees to control costs. Rhodes College in Memphis Tennessee is a good example of this approach. The institution's Student Associates program has been in place since 2004 (NAICU, 2009). After completing a rigorous selection process, students are placed in areas related to their academic field of study. The positions help solve departmental needs at a fraction of the previous cost and results in improved services, extended programming, and greater student satisfaction. Rhodes College generally pays students staff wages while reaping the savings associated with having permanent full-time employees. During the third year, Rhodes College experienced a savings of $725,000 with 60 students involved. This is a great way for students to gain valuable training and experience while helping colleges to cut costs.
Juniata College and Marquette University
Other private colleges and universities have replaced some of their full-time positions with students. The entire information tech support operation at Juniata College in Marion Alabama, for example, is run entirely by its students (NAICU, 2009). Students manage, direct budgets, and conduct research and development for new software or products. Likewise, Marquette University supplements its finance staff by hiring student accounting interns to apply classroom knowledge while providing a needed service. The data on how much these institutions saved has not yet been made available.
Unique Cost-Containing Methods
Rhodes College
Some private schools are using students as employees to control costs. Rhodes College in Memphis Tennessee is a good example of this approach. The institution's Student Associates program has been in place since 2004 (NAICU, 2009). After completing a rigorous selection process, students are placed in areas related to their academic field of study. The positions help solve departmental needs at a fraction of the previous cost and results in improved services, extended programming, and greater student satisfaction. Rhodes College generally pays students staff wages while reaping the savings associated with having permanent full-time employees. During the third year, Rhodes College experienced a savings of $725,000 with 60 students involved. This is a great way for students to gain valuable training and experience while helping colleges to cut costs.
Juniata College and Marquette University
Other private colleges and universities have replaced some of their full-time positions with students. The entire information tech support operation at Juniata College in Marion Alabama, for example, is run entirely by its students (NAICU, 2009). Students manage, direct budgets, and conduct research and development for new software or products. Likewise, Marquette University supplements its finance staff by hiring student accounting interns to apply classroom knowledge while providing a needed service. The data on how much these institutions saved has not yet been made available.
Unique Cost-Containing Methods
Other private colleges and universities are looking for creative ways in which to control costs. Adelphi University, for example, has installed a geo-thermal heating system in its residence halls (NAICU, 2009). This system has reduced the university's energy consumption by at least 30 percent. In a different situation, Clark University changed its budgeting system to one that is more enterprising. That is, certain departments are treated as self-containing business. This new budgeting approach has yielded an annual savings of 33 percent. Finally, Emory University has restructured itself by consolidating departments. In order to obtain the lowest prices and greater discounts, the institution is also combining outside contracts (for various services) when possible. Emory has just implemented this initiative and there is not data on their savings at this point.
Conclusion
By nature, the culture of higher education is not that of cost efficiency. Private non-profit and for-profit institutions are not immune to this. A recent article in the Chronicle of Higher Education, for example, reported on the high cost of attending private colleges and universities. While there is still a great deal that can be done to contain the costs, at least private colleges and universities are looking outside of the box for possible solutions.
Reference
The National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities (2009). Campus affordability and cost cutting initiatives. Retrieved October 31, 2009 from http://www.naicu.edu/special_initiatives/affordability/news
Cost Containment
In April, 2008, the American Association of State Colleges and Universities and SunGuard Higher Education published an article outlining research conducted through surveying AASCU member institutions. Over 114 AASCU institutions responded to the survey. Practices utilized to reduce cost containment are listed in the article.
Worth noting are the items listed that is keeping AASCU member institutions from containing the cost of doing business.
According to the survey:
Emerging Constraints on Cost Containment (AASCU and SunGuard Higher Education, 2008)
When asked about emerging issues in cost containment, survey participants are most likely to cite issues related to:
- Energy costs and energy management (36 percent)
- Benefits costs, especially rising health insurance costs (24 percent)
- Faculty and academic programming (22 percent)
- Staffing levels and salaries (12 percent)
Oftentimes, the discussion of finance in higher education, especially during difficult economic times is surrounded by issues involving faculty/staff employment and operating budgets. It was surprising to learn of the institutions response that "energy costs and energy management" was leading issue compared to other operational issues. Until recently, only little attention was paid to energy issues. Perhaps budgetary savings realized from operating in the "green" will keep higher education institutions out of the "red", and faculty / staff employment contracts away from slips of "pink".
Reference
American Association of State Colleges and Universities and SunGard Higher Education. (April, 2008) Cost Containment: A Survey of Current Practices at America’s State College and Universities . Washington, DC: American Association of State Colleges and Universities. Malvern, PA: SunGard Higher Education.
Unit 4: Possible Solution: Cutting Cost - What Can Students Do?
Perhaps one of the most critical issues facing higher education today is the "rising costs to attend college" (Dickeson, 2004, p. 1). Over the past several decades, tuition has continually risen faster than the rate of inflation. This has posed a serious problem for families whose incomes cannot keep pace. Much of the literature has been written on how colleges and universities can help contain costs. This posting, however, will focus on what students can do to help contain the costs at colleges and universities.
Academic Readiness
Perhaps one of the largest strains on higher education is to have students who are not adequately prepared for college work. With the assistance of their parents and guidance counselors, students should begin preparing for college as early as the eighth grade (Dickeson, 2004). Students can (and should) choose an academic plan of study that includes rigorous course work that prepares them for college. Such an approach should focus on finding ways to provide more support for students so that they will be prepared for college Rosenbaum (as cited in Dickeson, 2004) noted that "all students can plan to get a college degree; but if they are under prepared, they must be willing to repeat high school courses in college, spending the extra time and effort in non-credit remedial courses, with higher risks of failure" (p. 6). Having students who are academically ready can significantly decrease the need for remediation thus allowing colleges and universities to hold down those costs while preparing an edcuated workforce.
Participate in College Preparation and Bridge Programs
When possible, students should be encouraged to enroll in dual enrollment and advanced placement courses while in high school. Dual enrollment allows students to earn college credit while in high school thus decreasing the time needed to complete a degree program. Likewise, advance placement courses not only provide students with the opportunity to become college-ready but also a chance to earn college credit through the CLEP exam. The Department of Education (as cited in Coplin, 2006), for example, reported that "dual-credit courses are offered by 11,700 high schools and have 1.2 million enrollments and close to two million offer advance placement courses" (para. 23). Rosenbaum (as cited in Dickeson, 2004), maintained that "if students delay their effort until they get to college, the delay will make degree completion longer" (p. 6). Having students to enroll in college-level courses in high school can help reduce the need to offer a large number of course sections - especially in the first year general education curriculum. This in turn, could result in lower instructional costs. Colleges and universities can also benefit from dual enrollment programs. Instructional costs can be low especially when existing teachers - who are certified and eligible - teach the courses at adjunct rates. These institutions can also use dual enrollment programs as a means to generate revenues.
Academic Readiness
Perhaps one of the largest strains on higher education is to have students who are not adequately prepared for college work. With the assistance of their parents and guidance counselors, students should begin preparing for college as early as the eighth grade (Dickeson, 2004). Students can (and should) choose an academic plan of study that includes rigorous course work that prepares them for college. Such an approach should focus on finding ways to provide more support for students so that they will be prepared for college Rosenbaum (as cited in Dickeson, 2004) noted that "all students can plan to get a college degree; but if they are under prepared, they must be willing to repeat high school courses in college, spending the extra time and effort in non-credit remedial courses, with higher risks of failure" (p. 6). Having students who are academically ready can significantly decrease the need for remediation thus allowing colleges and universities to hold down those costs while preparing an edcuated workforce.
Participate in College Preparation and Bridge Programs
When possible, students should be encouraged to enroll in dual enrollment and advanced placement courses while in high school. Dual enrollment allows students to earn college credit while in high school thus decreasing the time needed to complete a degree program. Likewise, advance placement courses not only provide students with the opportunity to become college-ready but also a chance to earn college credit through the CLEP exam. The Department of Education (as cited in Coplin, 2006), for example, reported that "dual-credit courses are offered by 11,700 high schools and have 1.2 million enrollments and close to two million offer advance placement courses" (para. 23). Rosenbaum (as cited in Dickeson, 2004), maintained that "if students delay their effort until they get to college, the delay will make degree completion longer" (p. 6). Having students to enroll in college-level courses in high school can help reduce the need to offer a large number of course sections - especially in the first year general education curriculum. This in turn, could result in lower instructional costs. Colleges and universities can also benefit from dual enrollment programs. Instructional costs can be low especially when existing teachers - who are certified and eligible - teach the courses at adjunct rates. These institutions can also use dual enrollment programs as a means to generate revenues.
References
Coplin, W. D. (2006). Seven ways colleges can cut costs in their classrooms. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved October 31, 2009 from http://chronicle.comezproxy.memphis.edu/article/7-Ways-Colleges-Cut-Cos/17795/
Dickeson, R. C. (2004). Collision course: Rising college costs threaten America's future and require shared solutions. Retrieved November 1, 2009 from http://www.luminafoundation.org/publications/Collision
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